Antibodies to cross-linked amyloid beta oligomers

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to antibodies that bind cross-linked amyloid β oligomers, and methods for using such antibodies for diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer&#39;s disease.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/154,895, filed Jun. 7, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/632,784, filed Jul. 15, 2008, which is anational stage filing under 35 U.S.C. §371 of international applicationPCT/US2005/025567, filed Jul. 19, 2005, which was published under PCTArticle 21(2) in English, and claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) toU.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/589,081, which was filedon Jul. 19, 2004, and is incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to antibodies that bind cross-linked amyloid βoligomers, and methods for using such antibodies. The invention isuseful for diagnosing, and treating Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A convergence of histological, biochemical and genetic evidence linksthe widespread neuronal loss characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD)with deposits of β-amyloid that pervade the brains of AD patients. Theprincipal component of extracellular β-amyloid is the β-amyloid protein(Aβ). The Aβ peptide is not directly expressed as a functional proteinentity¹ but is released by the processing of the much larger amyloidprotein precursor (APP) protein^(2, 3). Aβ appears to be a normalproduct of cellular Aβ catabolism and is found as a soluble component ofhuman cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma⁴⁻⁶. While Aβ can containbetween 39 and 43 amino acids, the predominant species in brain are Aβ40(40 residues) and Aβ42 (42 residues)^(7, 8). Analysis of materialpurified from human tissue suggest that up to 40% of the Aβ pool in ADbrain consists of low molecular weight cross-linked β-amyloid proteinspecies we have coined “CLAPS”⁹. Covalent cross-linking of Aβ appears toinvolve oxidation of the protein, which is tied to the peptide'spropensity to bind the redox active metals copper and iron¹⁰. Themechanism of Aβ neurotoxicity remains controversial. However, evidenceis mounting that the most neurotoxic forms of Aβ are not mature fibrilsbut prefibrillar oligomers or protofibrils¹¹, which would include CLAPS.Notably, recent studies have demonstrated that the most toxic CLAPSmaybe cross-linked dimeric species of Aβ^(12, 13). Despite the abundanceand harmful bioactivity shown for CLAPS, the vast majority of currentlyavailable data has focused on non-oxidized monomeric forms of thepeptide.

Interest in autoimmunity to Aβ has been stimulated by recent findingsthat amyloid burden in transgenic animal models can be attenuated bycirculating anti-Aβ antibodies¹⁴⁻¹⁶. β-amyloid deposition can beinhibited by either peripheral infusion of exogenous anti-AP antibodies(passive immunization) or autoimmunity induced by immunization withsynthetic Aβ peptide. Initial studies suggested anti-Aβ antibodies aidin the clearance of amyloid by crossing the blood brain barrier (BBB)and binding directly to plaques. However, subsequent studies havesuggested that antibodies¹⁷ and other Aβ binding agents¹⁸ may not needto cross the BBB to be effective in inhibiting cerebral Aβ plaqueformation. In this model, Aβ is bound and sequestered in the peripheryand prevented from crossing back into the brain, thus promoting a netflux out of neurological tissue¹⁷.

Whatever the mechanism, the use of circulating anti-Aβ antibodies is atherapeutic strategy being actively pursued. Unfortunately, dosing inthe first clinical trial using Aβ vaccination to treat AD patients wasterminated in phase II because of complications associated withinflammation of the CNS vasculature¹⁹. None the less, limited datasuggest that amyloid load may have been attenuated in some trialsubjects by autoantibodies specific for insoluble Aβ deposited asAβ-amyloid²⁰. Despite the earlier problems, clinical trials aimed atelevating anti-Aβ antibody levels in AD patients will most likelyproceed. Therefore, it is imperative to advance our understanding of theautoimmune response to Aβ and its derivatives with greater alacrity.

The presence of anti-Aβ immunoreactivity in human serum and CSF wasfirst reported in 1991 by Mönning el al.²¹. Subsequently, Epstein-Barrvirus (EBV) transformed B cells from AD patients have been shown tosecrete anti-Aβ antibodies²². More recently, several studies have usedELISA assays to compare anti-Aβ autoimmunoreactivity in control and ADplasma and CSF. However, a consensus has yet to emerge as to whetheranti-AP autoantibodies are elevated²³, depressed^(24, 25) or unchanged²⁶in AD patients compared to non-demented controls. The future success ofAD therapies based on anti-Aβ antibodies will require greaterdelineation of the naturally occurring autoantibodies to Aβ.

Although a pattern of decline in AD patients is generally clinicallyrecognizable as the disease progresses, reliable diagnostic methods arelacking. The only definitive diagnostic test for AD at this time is todetermine whether amyloid plaques and tangles are present in a subject'sbrain tissue, a determination that can only be done after death. Thus,due to the lack of suitable diagnostic methods, health-careprofessionals are only able to provide a tentative diagnosis of AD in anindividual, particularly at the early to mid stages of the disease.Although these diagnoses can indicate that a person “likely” has AD, theabsence of a definitive diagnosis reflects a critical need for moreaccurate and reliable AD diagnostic tests.

In addition to the absence of reliable diagnostic methods, the are alsovery limited treatment options available for patients suspected ofhaving and/or diagnosed as having AD. Several drugs have been approvedin the US for treatment of early and mid-stage AD, but they havesignificant detrimental side effects and limited efficacy. The lack ofeffective treatments for AD means that even with a diagnosis of probableAD, the therapeutic options are quite limited. Thus, there is asignificant need for effective compounds and methods for preventingand/or treating AD.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Experiments to date have used synthetic unmodified monomeric Aβ peptidesto test autoimmunity. The current study is the first to test humanplasma for specific anti-CLAPS antibodies. We present data suggestingthat CLAPS generated by exposing Aβ to mild redox conditions may be moreimmunogenic than the normal unmodified, monomeric Aβ species. We alsoshow that plasma taken from AD patients exhibit significantly lessimmunoreactivity to CLAPS than do plasma samples drawn from non-dementedcontrols. Moreover, lower anti-CLAPS antibody titers correlated withearlier age-at-onset (AAO) of AD. These findings are consistent with anassociation between AD pathology and autoantibodies specific tocross-linked Aβ species.

According to one aspect of the invention, methods for diagnosingAlzheimer's disease in a subject are provided. The methods includeobtaining a biological sample from a subject, and determining thepresence of antibodies reactive with oxidized forms of amyloid β in theblood or plasma sample. The lack of antibodies reactive with oxidizedforms of amyloid β, or a reduced level of antibodies reactive withoxidized forms of amyloid β relative to a control, indicates that thesubject has Alzheimer's disease. In preferred embodiments, thebiological sample is a blood sample or plasma sample.

In some embodiments, the oxidized forms of amyloid β used to determinethe presence of antibodies are cross-linked β-amyloid protein species(CLAPS), preferably the CLAPS are 15-35 kDa. In other embodiments, theCLAPS are formed by oxidation of amyloid β with horse radish peroxidasein the presence of hydrogen peroxide.

In certain embodiments, the method used to determine the presence ofantibodies reactive with oxidized forms of amyloid β is an ELISA assay.Preferably the ELISA assay is a sandwich ELISA assay.

In other embodiments, the control is blood or plasma from a non-dementedindividual.

According to another aspect of the invention, methods for inducing animmune response to an oxidized form of amyloid β are provided. Themethods include administering to a subject an amount of an oxidized formof amyloid β effective to induce a specific immune response to theoxidized form of amyloid β. Preferably the immune response is theproduction of antibodies that bind to the oxidized form of amyloid β.

In certain embodiments, the oxidized form of amyloid β is cross-linkedβ-amyloid protein species (CLAPS). Preferably the CLAPS are 15-35 kDa.In other embodiments, the CLAPS are formed by oxidation of amyloid βwith horse radish peroxidase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide.

In a further aspect of the invention, methods for treating or preventingAlzheimer's disease are provided. The methods include administering to asubject in need of such treatment an amount of antibodies, or bindingfragments thereof, that bind to an oxidized form of amyloid β.

In certain embodiments, the antibodies are made by administering anoxidized form of amyloid β to a mammal to produce antibodies that bindthe oxidized form of amyloid β. Preferably the oxidized form of amyloidβ is cross-linked β-amyloid protein species (CLAPS), particularly CLAPSof 15-35 kDa.

In some embodiments, the mammal is a non-human species comprising humanimmunoglobulin genes, preferably a mouse.

In preferred embodiments, the antibodies or fragments thereof are humanantibodies, humanized antibodies or chimeric antibodies, orantigen-binding fragments thereof. Preferred antibody fragments includeFab fragments, F(ab′)₂ fragments, and Fv fragments. In other embodimentsthe antibodies are single chain antibodies.

Use of oxidized forms of amyloid β, e.g., CLAPS, in the preparation of amedicament also is provided. Use of antibodies that specifically bind tooxidized forms of amyloid β, e.g., CLAPS, in the preparation of amedicament also is provided. The medicaments useful, in preferredembodiments, for increasing immune responses to oxidized forms ofamyloid β, e.g., CLAPS, and for treating Alzheimer's disease and otherdisorders of amyloid β accumulation.

These and other objects of the invention will be described in furtherdetail in connection with the detailed description of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1D: Anti-Aβ ELISA is specific for anti-Aβ autoantibodies inhuman plasma.

FIG. 1A: SDS extraction of Aβ coated wells. Microplate wells wereincubated with Aβ that was unmodified, pre-treated with HRP, or inZn(II)-histidine buffer. Wells were then extracted with SDS samplebuffer. Extracts were immunoblotted, probed with pAb pan Aβ anddeveloped for exposure to ECL-film. Wells coated with unmodified Aβ(Aβ_(mon), lane 1) or peptide incubated in the presence of zinc(Aβ_(Zn), lane 3) were monomeric. Material pre-treated with HRP (CLAPS,lane 2) contained SDS-stable oligomeric Aβ species consistent with redoxmodifications and covalent cross-linking.

FIG. 1B: Efficiency of solid phase capture of unmodified Aβ, peptidepre-treated with HRP, and Aβ incubated in Zn(II)-histidine buffer. Wellswere incubated with TBS containing normal Aβ (Aβ_(on)) or peptidepre-treated with HRP (CLAPS). Wells were also incubated with normal Aβin Zn(II)-histidine buffer (Aβ_(Zn)). Following the capture step wellswere probed with pan Aβ. Bound antibodies were detected withanti-rabbit-HRP conjugate. Well loading for unmodified and HRP-treatedAβ differed by <3%. Consistent with metal-induced Aβ aggregation,peptide capture was elevated in the presence of zinc.

FIG. 1C: Anti-Aβ signal is attenuated by pre-absorption with syntheticAβ peptide. Non-demented control plasma was pre-incubated±solubleunmodified Aβ (1 μg/ml). Plasma incubants were then assayed by anti-AβELISA. Consistent with specificity of our ELISA for anti-Aβautoantibodies, signal was reduced for plasma samples containing solublesynthetic peptide.

FIG. 1D: Signal for anti-Aβ antibodies is attenuated by pre-incubationof plasma with immobilized Aβ. Non-demented control plasma waspre-incubated in wells coated with BSA or immobilized Aβ peptide. Plasmaincubants were then removed and assayed for anti-Aβ immunoreactivity.Consistent with depletion of anti-Aβ antibodies and specificity of ourELISA, signal was reduced for plasma pre-incubated with immobilized Aβ.All experiments used 384-well plates. Well signal was determined fromluminescence following addition of chemiluminescent reagent. Anti-AβELISA data is shown as average of 8 replicates±standard error.

FIGS. 2A-2D: AD plasma has significantly reduced autoimmunity for redoxcross-linked Aβ oligomers as compared to non-demented controls. Wellswere coated with BSA, or Aβ that was unmodified (FIG. 2A), pre-treatedwith HRP (FIG. 2B) or captured in Zn(II)-histidine buffer (FIG. 2C).Following blocking, wells were incubated with plasma from AD (n=59) ornon-demented control (n=59) cases. Bound antibodies were detected byincubation with anti-IgG-HRP conjugate. Control plasma autoimmunity toHRP-treated Aβ was significantly elevated (*p=0.028 by 2-tailed studentt-test) compared to AD samples. Plasmas were also compared for IgGlevels (FIG. 2D). Diluted plasma and IgG standards were captured to thesolid phase by incubation in fresh microplate wells Immobilized IgG wasdetected with anti-IgG-HRP antibody conjugate. No significant differencein IgG concentration was observed between AD and control cohorts. Allassays used 384-well plates. Well signal was determined fromluminescence following addition of Luminol Signal from Aβ containingwells was blanked on signal from wells pre-incubated with BSA. Data isshown as average sample signal (16 replicates for each plasma sample)for each test group±standard error.

FIG. 3: Antibodies from human plasma bind redox cross-linked Aβ species(CLAPS) resolved by SDS-PAGE and blotted to nitrocellulose membrane.Unmodified Aβ (Aβ_(mon), lane 1) and peptide pre-treated with HRP(CLAPS, lanes 2, 3 and 4) were resolved on SDS-PAGE and transferred tonitrocellulose membrane. Blots were incubated with pAb pan Aβ (lanes 1and 2) or diluted (1:100) human plasma from two non-demented patients(lanes 3 and 4) previously identified by Aβ autoimmunity ELISA to havehigh antibody titers to HRP-treated Aβ. Blots were incubated withanti-rabbit or anti-human-HRP conjugated antibodies and developed forexposure to ECL-film. Signal was highest for species with apparentmolecular weights corresponding to Aβ oligomers containing between fourand eight cross-linked monomeric units.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

We have discovered that human plasma contains antibodies thatselectively bind CLAPS. The data presented below shows that plasmasamples taken from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients exhibitsignificantly less immunoreactivity to CLAPS than do plasma samplesdrawn from non-demented controls. Moreover, lower anti-CLAPS antibodytiters correlated with earlier age-at-onset (AAO) of AD. These findingsare consistent with an association between AD pathology andautoantibodies specific to cross-linked Aβ species. As used herein,CLAPS are one type of oxidized form of amyloid β, also referred toherein as “oxidized Aβ oligomers”. This invention is not intended to belimited to CLAPS, but is applicable to other oxidized Aβ oligomers.Preferred oligomers are 15-35 kDa redox-modified Aβ oligomers.

Although the invention is primarily described in terms of Alzheimer'sdisease, other diseases or disorders in which the accumulation ofamyloid β (Aβ) contributes to disease onset or progression also can bemodulated and diagnosed in accordance with the invention. Thesedisorders are generically known as Aβ-accumulation-associated disorders.As used herein, the term “Aβ-accumulation-associated disorder” meansAlzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome, cerebrovascular amyloidosis,inclusion body myositis and hereditary inclusion body myopathies. OtherAβ-accumulation-associated disorders include any disease associated withabnormal (increased) BACE (β-site amyloid precursor protein cleavingenzyme) activity and any disease associated with abnormal (increased)γ-secretase activity.

The invention involves a variety of assays based upon detecting thelevel of antibodies in biological samples taken from subjects that bindoxidized forms of amyloid β, particularly cross-linked β-amyloid proteinspecies (CLAPS). The assays include (1) characterizing the levels of theantibodies in a subject as a means of diagnosing Alzheimer's disease orother Aβ-accumulation-associated disorders; (2) evaluating a treatmentfor regulating levels of amyloid β, particularly of oxidized forms ofamyloid β, in a subject; (3) selecting a treatment for regulating levelsof amyloid β, particularly of oxidized forms of amyloid β, in a subject;and (4) determining regression, progression or onset of a conditioncharacterized by abnormal levels of amyloid β, particularly of oxidizedforms of amyloid β, in a subject.

Thus, subjects can be characterized, treatment regimens can bemonitored, treatments can be selected and diseases can be betterunderstood using the assays of the present invention. For example, theinvention provides in one aspect a method for measuring the level ofantibodies reactive with oxidized Aβ oligomers, such as CLAPS, in asubject. As provided by the invention, a low (or undetectable) level ofantibodies reactive with oxidized Aβ oligomers is indicative ofAlzheimer's disease in the subject. In particular, a level of antibodiesreactive with oxidized Aβ oligomers such as CLAPS that is significantlylower in a subject than a control level (e.g., in a sample taken from anon-demented control individual) indicates that the subject hasAlzheimer's disease, whereas a relatively normal level of antibodiesindicates that the subject does not have Alzheimer's disease.

The assays described herein are carried out on samples obtained fromsubjects. As used herein, a subject is a human, non-human primate, cow,horse, pig, sheep, goat, dog, cat, or rodent. In all embodiments, humansubjects are preferred.

Samples of tissue and/or cells for use in the various methods describedherein can be obtained through standard methods. Samples can be surgicalsamples of any type of tissue or body fluid. Samples can be useddirectly or processed to facilitate analysis. Exemplary samples includea blood or serum sample, a cerebrospinal fluid sample, a bodily fluid, acell, a cell scraping, a cell extract, a tissue biopsy, including punchbiopsy, a tumor biopsy, a tissue, or a tissue extract or other methods.Preferably the samples are serum samples or blood samples.

Particular subjects to which the present invention can be applied aresubjects at risk for, suspected of having, or known to have anAβ-accumulation-associated disorder. Such disorders may include, but arenot limited to Alzheimer's disease and any other diseases associatedwith overproduction of Aβ or reduced clearance of Aβ such as Down'ssyndrome, cerebrovascular amyloidosis, inclusion body myositis andhereditary inclusion body myopathies.

Importantly, levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers arepreferably compared to controls according to the invention. The controlmay be a predetermined value, which can take a variety of forms. It canbe a single value, such as a median or mean. It can be established basedupon comparative groups, such as in groups having normal amounts of suchantibodies and groups having abnormal (i.e., low) amounts of suchantibodies. Another example of comparative groups would be groups havinga particular disease (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), condition or symptoms,and groups without the disease, condition or symptoms (e.g.,non-demented controls). Another comparative group would be a group witha family history of a condition and a group without such a familyhistory. The predetermined value can be arranged, for example, where atested population is divided equally (or unequally) into groups, such asa low-risk group, a medium-risk group and a high-risk group or intoquadrants or quintiles, the lowest-risk group being individuals with thehighest amounts of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers and thehighest-risk group being individuals with the highest amounts ofantibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers. Appropriate ranges andcategories can be selected with no more than routine experimentation bythose of ordinary skill in the art. Typically the control will be basedon apparently healthy normal individuals in an appropriate age bracket.

It will also be understood that the controls according to the inventionmay be, in addition to predetermined values, samples of materials testedin parallel with the experimental materials. Examples include samplesfrom control populations or control samples generated throughmanufacture to be tested in parallel with the experimental samples.

The various assays used to determine the levels of antibodies includethe assays described in the Examples section herein and other assayswell known to one of ordinary skill in the art Immunoassays may be usedaccording to the invention including sandwich-type ELISA assays,competitive binding assays, one-step direct tests and two-step testssuch as routinely practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art.

As mentioned above, it is also possible to characterize the existence ofan Aβ accumulation-associated disorder by monitoring changes in theabsolute or relative amounts of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβoligomers over time. For example, it is expected that a decrease in theamount of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers correlates withincreasing severity of an Aβ accumulation-associated disorder.Accordingly one can monitor levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβoligomers to determine if the status (e.g. severity, existence) of an Aβaccumulation-associated disorder of a subject is changing. Changes inrelative or absolute levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβoligomers of greater than 0.1% may indicate an abnormality. Preferably,the change in levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers,which indicates an abnormality, is greater than 0.2%, greater than 0.5%,greater than 1.0%, 2.0%, 3.0%, 4.0%, 5.0%, 7.0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%,30%, 40%, 50%, or more. Other changes, (e.g. increases or reductions) inlevels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers over time mayindicate an onset, progression, regression, or remission of the Aβaccumulation-associated disorder in the subject. An increase in level ofantibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomers may mean regression of thedisorder. Such a regression may be associated with a clinical treatmentof the disorder; thus, the methods of the invention can be used todetermine the efficacy of a therapy for an Aβ-accumulation-associateddisorder (e.g. Alzheimer's disease).

The invention in another aspect provides a diagnostic method todetermine the effectiveness of treatments. The “evaluation of treatment”as used herein, means the comparison of a subject's levels of antibodiesthat bind oxidized Aβ oligomers measured in samples collected from thesubject at different sample times, preferably at least one day apart.The preferred time to obtain the second sample from the subject is atleast one day after obtaining the first sample, which means the secondsample is obtained at any time following the day of the first samplecollection, preferably at least 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 or more hours afterthe time of first sample collection. Days, weeks, months or even yearscan separate the collection of samples in time.

The comparison of levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβ oligomersin two or more samples, taken at different times, allows evaluation ofthe treatment to regulate levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβoligomers. Such a comparison provides a measure of the status of the Aβaccumulation-associated disorder to determine the effectiveness of anytreatment to regulate levels of antibodies that bind oxidized Aβoligomers. These methods also permit determination of regression,progression or onset of disease.

In general, treatment methods involve administering an agent to increasethe immune response to oxidized Aβ oligomers (e.g., CLAPS) and/orincrease the level of antibodies to oxidized Aβ oligomers (e.g., throughpassive immunization).

Antibodies and/or antigen-binding fragments thereof, that selectivelybind to oxidized Aβ oligomers, particularly CLAPS, are useful indiagnostic methods and therapeutic methods. As described herein, theantibodies of the present invention are prepared by any of a variety ofmethods, including administering protein, fragments of protein (e.g.,CLAPS) and the like to an animal to induce polyclonal antibodies. Theproduction of monoclonal antibodies is performed according to techniqueswell known in the art. As detailed herein, such antibodies orantigen-binding fragments thereof may be used for example to diagnosedisease, monitor treatment, and for therapies including the preventionand treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Thus isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof can beidentified and prepared that bind specifically to oxidized Aβ oligomers,particularly CLAPS. As used herein, “binding selectively to” meanscapable of distinguishing the identified material from other materialssufficient for the purpose to which the invention relates. Thus,“binding selectively to” or “selectively binds” an oxidized Aβ oligomermeans the ability to bind to and distinguish these molecules from otherAβ molecules and oligomers. “Selectively binds” means that an antibodypreferentially binds to an oxidized Aβ oligomer (e.g., with greateravidity, greater binding affinity) rather than to a non-oxidized Aβoligomer or an Aβ monomer. In preferred embodiments, the antibodies ofthe invention bind to an oxidized Aβ oligomer with an avidity and/orbinding affinity that is 1.1-fold, 1.2-fold, 1.3-fold, 1.4-fold,1.5-fold, 1.6-fold, 1.7-fold, 1.8-fold, 1.9-fold, 2-fold, 3-fold,4-fold, 5-fold, 7-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold,70-fold, 100-fold, 200-fold, 300-fold, 500-fold, 1000-fold or more thanthat exhibited by the antibody for a non-oxidized Aβ oligomer or an Aβmonomer. Preferably, the antibody selectively binds an oxidized Aβoligomer, and not a non-oxidized Aβ oligomer or an Aβ monomer, i.e.,substantially exclusively binds to an oxidized Aβ oligomer. Mostpreferably, the antibody selectively binds a CLAPS molecule. Preferablythe antibodies have binding affinity greater than or equal to about 10⁶,10⁷, 10⁸, 10⁹, or 10¹⁰ M⁻¹.

Antibodies also may be coupled to specific diagnostic labeling agentsfor imaging of cells and tissues with oxidized Aβ oligomers; or totherapeutically useful agents according to standard coupling procedures.Diagnostic agents include, but are not limited to, barium sulfate,iocetamic acid, iopanoic acid, ipodate calcium, diatrizoate sodium,diatrizoate meglumine, metrizamide, tyropanoate sodium andradiodiagnostics including positron emitters such as fluorine-18 andcarbon-11, gamma emitters such as iodine-123, technitium-99m, iodine-131and indium-111, nuclides for nuclear magnetic resonance such as fluorineand gadolinium. Other diagnostic agents useful in the invention will beapparent to one of ordinary skill in the art.

As is well-known in the art, only a small portion of an antibodymolecule, the paratope, is involved in the binding of the antibody toits epitope (see, in general, Clark, W. R. (1986) The ExperimentalFoundations of Modern Immunology, Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York; Roitt,I. (1991) Essential Immunology, 7th Ed., Blackwell ScientificPublications, Oxford). The pFc′ and Fc regions, for example, areeffectors of the complement cascade but are not involved in antigenbinding. An antibody from which the pFc′ region has been enzymaticallycleaved, or which has been produced without the pFc′ region, designatedan F9(ab′)2 fragment, retains both of the antigen binding sites of anintact antibody. Similarly, an antibody from which the Fc region hasbeen enzymatically cleaved, or which has been produced without the Fcregion, designated an Fab fragment, retains one of the antigen bindingsites of an intact antibody molecule. Proceeding further, Fab fragmentsconsist of a covalently bound antibody light chain and a portion of theantibody heavy chain denoted Fd. The Fd fragments are the majordeterminant of antibody specificity (a single Fd Fragment may beassociated with up to ten different light chains without alteringantibody specificity) and Fd fragments retain epitope-binding ability inisolation.

Within the antigen-binding portion of an antibody, as is well-known inthe art, there are complementarity determining regions (CDRs), whichdirectly interact with the epitope of the antigen, and framework regions(FRs), which maintain the tertiary structure of the paratope (see, ingeneral, Clark, W. R. (1986) The Experimental Foundations of ModernImmunology, Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York; Roitt, I. (1991) EssentialImmunology, 7th Ed., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford). In boththe heavy chain Fd fragment and the light chain of IgG immunoglobulins,there are four framework regions (FR1 through FR4) separatedrespectively by three complementarity determining regions (CDR1 throughCDR3). The CDRs, and in particular the CDR3 regions, and moreparticularly the heavy chain CDR3, are largely responsible for antibodyspecificity.

It is now well-established in the art that the non-CDR regions of amammalian antibody may be replaced with similar regions of conspecificor heterospecific antibodies while retaining the epitopic specificity ofthe original antibody. This is most clearly manifested in thedevelopment and use of “chimeric” and “humanized” antibodies in whichnon-human CDRs are covalently joined to human FR and/or Fc/pFc′ regionsto produce a functional antibody. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,816,567,5,225,539, 5,585,089, 5,693,762 and 5,859,205, and references citedtherein, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Fully human monoclonal antibodies also can be prepared by immunizingmice transgenic for large portions of human immunoglobulin heavy andlight chain loci. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,591,669, 5,598,369,5,545,806, 5,545,807, 6,150,584, and references cited therein, thecontents of which are incorporated herein by reference. These animalshave been genetically modified such that there is a functional deletionin the production of endogenous (e.g., murine) antibodies. The animalsare further modified to contain all or a portion of the human germ-lineimmunoglobulin gene locus such that immunization of these animalsresults in the production of fully human antibodies to the antigen ofinterest. Following immunization of these mice (e.g., XenoMouse(Abgenix), HuMAb mice (Medarex/GenPharm)), monoclonal antibodies areprepared according to standard hybridoma technology. These monoclonalantibodies have human immunoglobulin amino acid sequences and thereforewill not provoke human anti-mouse antibody (HAMA) responses whenadministered to humans.

Thus, as will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art, thepresent invention also provides for F(ab′)2, Fab, Fv and Fd fragments;chimeric antibodies in which the Fc and/or Fr and/or CDR1 and/or CDR2and/or light chain CDR3 regions have been replaced by homologous humanor non-human sequences; chimeric F(ab′)2 fragment antibodies in whichthe FR and/or CDR1 and/or CDR2 and/or light chain CDR3 regions have beenreplaced by homologous human or non-human sequences; chimeric Fabfragment antibodies in which the FR and/or CDR1 and/or CDR2 and/or lightchain CDR3 regions have been replaced by homologous human or non-humansequences; and chimeric Fd fragment antibodies in which the FR and/orCDR1 and/or CDR2 regions have been replaced by homologous human ornonhuman sequences. The present invention also includes so-called singlechain antibodies.

Thus, the invention involves polypeptides of numerous size and type thatbind selectively to oxidized Aβ oligomers. These polypeptides may bederived also from sources other than antibody technology. For example,such polypeptide-binding agents can be provided by degenerate peptidelibraries, which can be readily prepared in solution, in immobilizedform or as phage display libraries. Combinatorial libraries also can besynthesized of peptides containing one or more amino acids. Librariesfurther can be synthesized of non-peptide synthetic moieties.

The antibodies described herein may be administered for therapeuticand/prophylactic uses. Although not wishing to be bound by any theory ormode of action, it is believed that the antibodies can bind to anddecrease the accumulation of certain oxidized Aβ oligomers, withaccompanying reduction of toxicity for the subject.

The oxidized Aβ oligomers, particularly CLAPS, can be prepared byoxidation of Aβ and its oligomers, or native species can be isolatedfrom biological samples including blood, plasma, tissue or cell samples,etc. Oxidation of Aβ oligomers can be performed according to the methoddescribed in the Examples, or by any other suitable method known to oneof ordinary skill in the art.

Thus, as used herein with respect to proteins, “isolated” meansseparated from its native environment and present in sufficient quantityto permit its identification or use. Isolated, when referring to aprotein or polypeptide, means, for example: (i) selectively produced byexpression of a recombinant nucleic acid, (ii) purified as bychromatography or electrophoresis or (iii) prepared by synthesis.Isolated proteins or polypeptides may, but need not be, substantiallypure. The term “substantially pure” means that the proteins orpolypeptides are essentially free of other substances with which theymay be found in nature or in vivo systems to an extent practical andappropriate for their intended use. Substantially pure proteins may beproduced by techniques well known in the art. Because an isolatedprotein may be admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier in apharmaceutical preparation, the protein may comprise only a smallpercentage by weight of the preparation. The protein is nonethelessisolated in that it has been separated from the substances with which itmay be associated in living systems, e.g. isolated from other proteins.

The prevention and treatment methods of the invention includeadministration of oxidized Aβ oligomers, to increase the immune responseto these oligomers, particularly the level of antibodies thatspecifically bind to the oxidized Aβ oligomers. Methods for preventionand/or treatment also can include the administration to a subject ofantibodies that specifically bind to the oxidized Aβ oligomers, e.g.,CLAPS. The latter of these methods is typically called “passiveimmunization”.

When administered, the therapeutic molecules of the present invention(including oxidized Aβ oligomers, particularly CLAPS; antibodies andfragments thereof) are administered in pharmaceutically acceptablepreparations. Such preparations may routinely contain pharmaceuticallyacceptable concentrations of salt, buffering agents, preservatives,compatible carriers, and optionally other therapeutic agents.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means a non-toxic material thatdoes not interfere with the effectiveness of the biological activity ofthe active ingredients. The characteristics of the carrier will dependon the route of administration.

The therapeutics of the invention can be administered by anyconventional route, including injection or by gradual infusion overtime. The administration may, for example, be intravenous,intraperitoneal, intramuscular, oral, intranasal, intracavity,intrathecal, intracranial, subcutaneous, intradermal, or transdermal.

The therapeutic compositions may conveniently be presented in unitdosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in theart of pharmacy. All methods include the step of bringing the compoundsinto association with a carrier which constitutes one or more accessoryingredients. In general, the compositions are prepared by uniformly andintimately bringing the therapeutic agent into association with a liquidcarrier, a finely divided solid carrier, or both, and then, ifnecessary, shaping the product.

Compositions suitable for parenteral administration convenientlycomprise a sterile aqueous preparation of the therapeutic agent, whichis preferably isotonic with the blood of the recipient. This aqueouspreparation may be formulated according to known methods using thosesuitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterileinjectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution orsuspension in a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent,for example as a solution in 1,3-butane diol. Among the acceptablevehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution,and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oilsare conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For thispurpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono ordiglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid find use inthe preparation of injectables. Carrier formulations suitable for oral,subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, etc. can be found inRemington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Company, Easton,Pa.

Compositions suitable for oral administration may be presented asdiscrete units such as capsules, cachets, tablets, or lozenges, eachcontaining a predetermined amount of the therapeutic agent. Othercompositions include suspensions in aqueous liquors or non-aqueousliquids such as a syrup, an elixir, or an emulsion.

The invention provides a composition of the above-described agents foruse as a medicament, methods for preparing the medicament and methodsfor the sustained release of the medicament in vivo. Delivery systemscan include time-release, delayed release or sustained release deliverysystems. Such systems can avoid repeated administrations of thetherapeutic agent of the invention, increasing convenience to thesubject and the physician. Many types of release delivery systems areavailable and known to those of ordinary skill in the art. They includepolymer-based systems such as polylactic and polyglycolic acid,poly(lactide-glycolide), copolyoxalates, polyanhydrides,polyesteramides, polyorthoesters, polyhydroxybutyric acid, andpolycaprolactone. Microcapsules of the foregoing polymers containingdrugs are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,075,109. Nonpolymersystems that are lipids including sterols such as cholesterol,cholesterol esters and fatty acids or neutral fats such as mono-, di-and tri-glycerides; phospholipids; hydrogel release systems; silasticsystems; peptide based systems; wax coatings, compressed tablets usingconventional binders and excipients, partially fused implants and thelike. Specific examples include, but are not limited to: (a) erosionalsystems in which the polysaccharide is contained in a form within amatrix, found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,452,775, 4,675,189, and 5,736,152, and(b) diffusional systems in which an active component permeates at acontrolled rate from a polymer such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos.3,854,480, 5,133,974 and 5,407,686. In addition, pump-based hardwaredelivery systems can be used, some of which are adapted forimplantation.

In one particular embodiment, the preferred vehicle is a biocompatiblemicroparticle or implant that is suitable for implantation into themammalian recipient. Exemplary bioerodible implants that are useful inaccordance with this method are described in PCT Internationalapplication no. PCT/US95/03307 (Publication No. WO 95/24929, entitled“Polymeric Gene Delivery System”. PCT/US95/03307 describes abiocompatible, preferably biodegradable polymeric matrix for containingan exogenous gene under the control of an appropriate promoter. Thepolymeric matrix is used to achieve sustained release of the exogenousgene in the patient. In accordance with the instant invention, thecompound(s) of the invention is encapsulated or dispersed within thebiocompatible, preferably biodegradable polymeric matrix disclosed inPCT/US95/03307. The polymeric matrix preferably is in the form of amicroparticle such as a microsphere (wherein the compound is dispersedthroughout a solid polymeric matrix) or a microcapsule (wherein thecompound is stored in the core of a polymeric shell). Other forms of thepolymeric matrix for containing the compounds of the invention includefilms, coatings, gels, implants, and stents. The size and composition ofthe polymeric matrix device is selected to result in favorable releasekinetics in the tissue into which the matrix device is implanted. Thesize of the polymeric matrix device further is selected according to themethod of delivery that is to be used. The polymeric matrix compositioncan be selected to have both favorable degradation rates and also to beformed of a material that is bioadhesive, to further increase theeffectiveness of transfer when the devise is administered to a vascularsurface. The matrix composition also can be selected not to degrade, butrather, to release by diffusion over an extended period of time.

Both non-biodegradable and biodegradable polymeric matrices can be usedto deliver agents of the invention of the invention to the subject.Biodegradable matrices are preferred. Such polymers may be natural orsynthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are preferred. The polymer isselected based on the period of time over which release is desired,generally in the order of a few hours to a year or longer. Typically,release over a period ranging from between a few hours and three totwelve months is most desirable. The polymer optionally is in the formof a hydrogel that can absorb up to about 90% of its weight in water andfurther, optionally is cross-linked with multi-valent ions or otherpolymers.

In general, the agents of the invention are delivered using thebioerodible implant by way of diffusion, or more preferably, bydegradation of the polymeric matrix. Exemplary synthetic polymers thatcan be used to form the biodegradable delivery system include:polyamides, polycarbonates, polyalkylenes, polyalkylene glycols,polyalkylene oxides, polyalkylene terepthalates, polyvinyl alcohols,polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl esters, polyvinyl halides,polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyglycolides, polysiloxanes, polyurethanes andco-polymers thereof, alkyl cellulose, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, celluloseethers, cellulose esters, nitro celluloses, polymers of acrylic andmethacrylic esters, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxy-propyl methyl cellulose, hydroxybutyl methylcellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate, cellulose acetatebutyrate, cellulose acetate phthalate, carboxylethyl cellulose,cellulose triacetate, cellulose sulphate sodium salt, poly(methylmethacrylate), poly(ethyl methacrylate), poly(butylmethacrylate),poly(isobutyl methacrylate), poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecylmethacrylate), poly(lauryl methacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate),poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutylacrylate), poly(octadecyl acrylate), polyethylene, polypropylene,poly(ethylene glycol), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(ethyleneterephthalate), poly(vinyl alcohols), polyvinyl acetate, poly vinylchloride, polystyrene and polyvinylpyrrolidone.

Examples of non-biodegradable polymers include ethylene vinyl acetate,poly(meth)acrylic acid, polyamides, copolymers and mixtures thereof.

Examples of biodegradable polymers include synthetic polymers such aspolymers of lactic acid and glycolic acid, polyanhydrides,poly(ortho)esters, polyurethanes, poly(butic acid), poly(valeric acid),and poly(lactide-cocaprolactone), and natural polymers such as alginateand other polysaccharides including dextran and cellulose, collagen,chemical derivatives thereof (substitutions, additions of chemicalgroups, for example, alkyl, alkylene, hydroxylations, oxidations, andother modifications routinely made by those skilled in the art), albuminand other hydrophilic proteins, zein and other prolamines andhydrophobic proteins, copolymers and mixtures thereof. In general, thesematerials degrade either by enzymatic hydrolysis or exposure to water invivo, by surface or bulk erosion.

Bioadhesive polymers of particular interest include bioerodiblehydrogels described by H. S. Sawhney, C. P. Pathak and J. A. Hubell inMacromolecules, 1993, 26, 581-587, the teachings of which areincorporated herein by reference, polyhyaluronic acids, casein, gelatin,glutin, polyanhydrides, polyacrylic acid, alginate, chitosan,poly(methyl methacrylates), poly(ethyl methacrylates),poly(butylmethacrylate), poly(isobutyl methacrylate),poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecyl methacrylate), poly(laurylmethacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate), poly(methyl acrylate),poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutyl acrylate), and poly(octadecylacrylate).

Use of a long-term sustained release implant may be particularlysuitable for treatment of established neurological disorder conditionsas well as subjects at risk of developing a neurological disorder.“Long-term” release, as used herein, means that the implant isconstructed and arranged to deliver therapeutic levels of the activeingredient for at least 7 days, and preferably 30-60 days. The implantmay be positioned at or near the site of the neurological damage or thearea of the brain or nervous system affected by or involved in theneurological disorder. Long-term sustained release implants are wellknown to those of ordinary skill in the art and include some of therelease systems described above.

A response to a prophylatic and/or treatment method of the invention canbe measured, for example, by determining the physiological effects ofthe treatment or medication, such as the decrease or lack of diseasesymptoms following administration of the treatment or pharmacologicalagent. Other assays will be known to one of ordinary skill in the artand can be employed for measuring the level of the response. Forexample, the behavioral and neurological diagnostic methods that areused to ascertain the likelihood that a subject has Alzheimer's disease,and to determine the putative stage of the disease can be used toascertain the level of response to a prophylactic and/or treatmentmethod of the invention. The amount of a treatment may be varied forexample by increasing or decreasing the amount of a therapeuticcomposition, by changing the therapeutic composition administered, bychanging the route of administration, by changing the dosage timing andso on. The effective amount will vary with the particular conditionbeing treated, the age and physical condition of the subject beingtreated, the severity of the condition, the duration of the treatment,the nature of the concurrent therapy (if any), the specific route ofadministration, and the like factors within the knowledge and expertiseof the health practitioner. For example, an effective amount can dependupon the degree to which an individual has abnormal levels of antibodiesto oxidized Aβ oligomers. In the case of passive immunization, treatmentof those individuals having lower levels of antibodies or no measurableantibodies may require higher levels of antibodies to be administered.

The factors involved in determining an effective amount are well knownto those of ordinary skill in the art and can be addressed with no morethan routine experimentation. It is generally preferred that a maximumdose of the pharmacological agents of the invention (alone or incombination with other therapeutic agents) be used, that is, the highestsafe dose according to sound medical judgment. It will be understood bythose of ordinary skill in the art however, that a patient may insistupon a lower dose or tolerable dose for medical reasons, psychologicalreasons or for virtually any other reasons.

The therapeutically effective amount of a pharmacological agent of theinvention is that amount effective to increase antibodies thatselectively bind oxidized Aβ oligomers, and preferably reduce or preventan Aβ accumulation-associated disorder, such as Alzheimer's disease.

In the case of treating a particular disease or condition the desiredresponse is inhibiting the progression of the disease or condition. Thismay involve only slowing the progression of the disease temporarily,although more preferably, it involves halting the progression of thedisease permanently. This can be monitored by routine diagnostic methodsknown to one of ordinary skill in the art for any particular disease.The desired response to treatment of the disease or condition also canbe delaying the onset or even preventing the onset of the disease orcondition.

The pharmaceutical compositions used in the foregoing methods preferablyare sterile and contain an effective amount of a pharmacological agentfor producing the desired response in a unit of weight or volumesuitable for administration to a patient.

The doses of pharmacological agents administered to a subject can bechosen in accordance with different parameters, in particular inaccordance with the mode of administration used and the state of thesubject. Other factors include the desired period of treatment. In theevent that a response in a subject is insufficient at the initial dosesapplied, higher doses (or effectively higher doses by a different, morelocalized delivery route) may be employed to the extent that patienttolerance permits. The dosage of a pharmacological agent of theinvention may be adjusted by the individual physician or veterinarian,particularly in the event of any complication. A therapeuticallyeffective amount typically varies from 0.01 μg/kg to about 1000 mg/kg,preferably from about 1.0 μg/kg to about 200 mg/kg, and most preferablyfrom about 0.1 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg, in one or more doseadministrations daily, for one or more days.

Various modes of administration will be known to one of ordinary skillin the art which effectively deliver the pharmacological agents of theinvention to a desired tissue, cell, or bodily fluid. The administrationmethods include: topical, intravenous, oral, inhalation, intracavity,intrathecal, intrasynovial, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, transdermal,intravitreal, subcutaneous, intramuscular and intradermaladministration. The invention is not limited by the particular modes ofadministration disclosed herein. Standard references in the art (e.g.,Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th edition, 1990) provide modesof administration and formulations for delivery of variouspharmaceutical preparations and formulations in pharmaceutical carriers.Other protocols which are useful for the administration ofpharmacological agents of the invention will be known to one of ordinaryskill in the art, in which the dose amount, schedule of administration,sites of administration, mode of administration (e.g., intra-organ) andthe like vary from those presented herein.

Administration of pharmacological agents of the invention to mammalsother than humans, e.g. for testing purposes or veterinary therapeuticpurposes, is carried out under substantially the same conditions asdescribed above. It will be understood by one of ordinary skill in theart that this invention is applicable to both human and animal diseasesincluding Aβ accumulation-associated disorders of the invention. Thus,this invention is intended to be used in husbandry and veterinarymedicine as well as in human therapeutics.

When administered, the pharmaceutical preparations of the invention areapplied in pharmaceutically-acceptable amounts and inpharmaceutically-acceptable compositions. The term “pharmaceuticallyacceptable” means a non-toxic material that does not interfere with theeffectiveness of the biological activity of the active ingredients. Suchpreparations may routinely contain salts, buffering agents,preservatives, compatible carriers, and optionally other therapeuticagents. When used in medicine, the salts should be pharmaceuticallyacceptable, but non-pharmaceutically acceptable salts may convenientlybe used to prepare pharmaceutically-acceptable salts thereof and are notexcluded from the scope of the invention. Such pharmacologically andpharmaceutically-acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, thoseprepared from the following acids: hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric,nitric, phosphoric, maleic, acetic, salicylic, citric, formic, malonic,succinic, and the like. Also, pharmaceutically-acceptable salts can beprepared as alkaline metal or alkaline earth salts, such as sodium,potassium or calcium salts. Preferred components of the composition aredescribed above in conjunction with the description of thepharmacological agents and/or compositions of the invention.

A pharmacological agent or composition may be combined, if desired, witha pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier. The term“pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier” as used herein means one or morecompatible solid or liquid fillers, diluents or encapsulating substanceswhich are suitable for administration into a human. The term “carrier”denotes an organic or inorganic ingredient, natural or synthetic, withwhich the active ingredient is combined to facilitate the application.The components of the pharmaceutical compositions also are capable ofbeing co-mingled with the pharmacological agents of the invention, andwith each other, in a manner such that there is no interaction whichwould substantially impair the desired pharmaceutical efficacy.

The pharmaceutical compositions may contain suitable buffering agents,as described above, including: acetate, phosphate, citrate, glycine,borate, carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide (and other bases) andpharmaceutically acceptable salts of the foregoing compounds. Thepharmaceutical compositions also may contain, optionally, suitablepreservatives, such as: benzalkonium chloride; chlorobutanol; parabensand thimerosal.

The invention will be more fully understood by reference to thefollowing examples. These examples, however, are merely intended toillustrate the embodiments of the invention and are not to be construedto limit the scope of the invention.

Examples Methods AD and Control Cases.

Plasma samples were collected from patients in the Memory and MovementDisorders Unit of Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston, Mass.following informed consent. Samples were collected as part of abiomarker study approved by the MGH Institutional Review Board.Participants had a diagnoses of AD (n=59) by NINCDS-ADRDA criteria²⁷ ornon-demented controls (n=59). The demographics of the population areshown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Demographic and biochemical data on non-demented control and ADcohorts. The table shows age, duration of illness and education asaverage years ± standard deviation (SD) for non-demented control and ADcohorts. Aβ40 and Aβ42 plasma levels were determined by sandwich ELISAand are shown as average concentrations (picomolar) ± SD. Control ADDemographic Data n 59 Age (y) 70 ± 10 77 ± 8  % Male 44 Duration of AD(y)   5 ± 3.3 Education (y) 15 ± 3.2 13 ± 3.1 Biochemical Data Aβ40 (pM)45 ± 14 50 ± 18 Aβ42 (pM) 6.2 ± 2.7 6.4 ± 2.8

Preparation of Stock Solutions and Buffers.

Stock Aβ solutions were prepared by addition of 30% trifluoroethanol inHPLC grade water to ≈1 mg of powdered Aβ40 (synthesized by the W. KeckLaboratory, Yale University, New Haven). Undissolved peptide wassolubilized by light sonication of the stock solution for 3 minutes.Following sonication, the Aβ solution was centrifuged to removeundissolved material and peptide concentration in the supernatantdetermined by Bicinchoninic acid protein assay (Pierce, Rockford Ill.).Zn(II)-histidine buffers were prepared by combining zinc standardsolution (National Institute of Standards and Technology) with TBS (150mM NaCl in 50 mM Tris, pH 7.4) containing histidine for a finalZn(II):histidine molar ratio of 1:6.

HRP Treatment of Aβ.

The method first described by Galeazzi et al (1999)²⁸ was used togenerated cross-linked β-amyloid protein species (CLAPS). Fresh Aβ40(100 μg/ml) was incubated (2 days at 37° C.) in TBS with 10 μg/ml horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (100 μM).Following incubation, HRP in the sample was inactivated by incubation (1hr at 37° C.) with sodium azide (5%), an irreversible inhibitor ofperoxidase activity. No peroxidase signal was detected in solutions of,or microplate wells coated with, HRP-treated Aβ (data not shown). Aβoligomerization during incubation with HRP was monitored by Western blotusing a polyclonal antibody (pAb) pan Aβ raised against full-lengthpeptide (Calbiochem, San Diego, Calif.).

Aβ antibody ELISA.

Aβ was first immobilized to the solid phase. Unmodified or HRP-treatedpeptide (100 μg/ml) was incubated in TBS (20 μl/well) in the wells of a384-well microplate. For some experiments unmodified Aβ was incubated inwells containing 100 μM Zn(II)-histidine buffer. Following the capturestep, plates were blocked overnight at 4° C. with BSA/TBS buffer (10%BSA in TBS). Wells were then incubated with plasma samples diluted 1:50in BSA/TBS buffer. After washing, wells were incubated with a 1:25,000dilution of goat anti-IgG antibody conjugated to HRP (Calbiochem, SanDiego Calif.). The plate was washed and luminescence measured afteraddition of 20 μl/well of luminol solution (Pierce, Rockford Ill.).

Immunoblotting (Western blotting).

Samples were first resolved by electrophoresis on SDS-PAGE (4-12%Bis-Tris gels) and then transferred to nitrocellulose membrane.Membranes were blocked overnight at 4° C. with TBST containing 5% eachof skimmed milk and BSA. For detection of Aβ, membranes were firstprobed (2 hrs at room temperature) with 1:3000 dilution of pAb pan Aβ,then incubated with goat anti-rabbit IgG-coupled to HRP (1:10000). Fordetection of Aβ immunoreactivity in human plasma, membranes blotted withAβ were incubated (overnight at 4° C.) with plasma samples diluted 1:100in BSA/TBST. Membranes were then washed and probed withanti-human-IgG-HRP conjugate. Both Aβ detection and Aβ immunoreactivityblots were developed for exposure to enhanced chemiluminescence(ECL)-film with super signal ultra (Pierce, Rockford Ill.).

IgG ELISA.

Plasma samples and standards of known IgG concentration were diluted(1:20) in BSA/TBS buffer and incubated (1 hr at room temp) in freshuntreated microplate wells. Following washing, wells were probed (1 hrat room temperature) with anti-IgG-HRP conjugated antibody (1:50,000) inBSA/TBS. Well chemiluminescence was then measured following addition ofluminol.

Aβ40 and Aβ42 Plasma Levels.

Plasma levels of Aβ40 and Aβ42 were determined by sandwich ELISA asdescribed by Fukumoto et al., (2003)²⁹. Briefly, Aβ was captured to thesolid phase using an antibody directed against residues 11-28 of thepeptide (anti-Aβ11-28). Bound Aβ was detected using anti-Aβ antibodiesBA27 (Aβ40 specific) or BCO5 (Aβ42 specific). The three antibodies wereobtained from Takeda Chemical Industries, Osaka, Japan.

Results

We first established an ELISA to measure titers of anti-Aβautoantibodies in human plasma. Initial experiments characterized the Aβspecies used to capture autoantibodies from plasma. Wells were coatedwith either unmodified monomeric Aβ (Aβ_(mon)), HRP-treated peptidecontaining cross-linked β-amyloid protein species (CLAPS), or peptideassembled into non-covalent multimers by incubation withZn(II)/histidine (Aβ_(Zn)). The wells were then extracted with SDSsample buffer and the extracts immunoblotted using a polyclonal (pAb)antibody raised against full-length Aβ peptide (pan Aβ). Analysis ofimmunoblot signal confirmed that the wells contained immobilized Aβ(FIG. 1 a). Untreated Aβ and peptide immobilized in the presence ofZn(II)-histidine were monomeric. However, HRP-treated peptide containedadditional cross-linked oligomeric species. We next compared wells forpeptide loading. Following incubation with Aβ preparations, the wellswere blocked and then incubated with pAb pan Aβ. Bound antibody wasdetected by addition of chemiluminescence reagent following incubationwith goat anti-rabbit IgG-coupled to HRP (FIG. 1 b). Aβ loading forwells incubated with unmodified versus HRP-treated peptide differed onaverage by <3%. Signal strength was also similar between replicate wellswithin a range of <9% of total loading. Consistent with the formationand capture of aggregated Aβ assemblies, wells contained almost 2-foldmore peptide when incubations included Zn(II)-histidine buffer.

Next we tested the specificity of the ELISA for anti-Aβimmunoreactivity. Non-demented control plasma was pre-incubated (30minutes) with either BSA or exogenous soluble Aβ. (final concentrationin well of 1 μg/ml) before being assayed. In a complementary experiment,plasma was pre-incubated in wells coated with BSA or immobilizedAβ_(mon), removed and then assayed for anti-Aβ immunoreactivity.Consistent with specificity for anti-Aβ immunoreactivity, signal wasreduced relative to BSA pre-incubations for both anti-Aβ antibodyabsorption (FIG. 1 c) and depletion (FIG. 1 d) experiments. Notably, forthe absorption experiments (FIG. 1 c) no detectable attenuation ofsignal was observed for plasma spiked with <100 ng/ml of exogenous Aβ(data not shown). Previous studies have suggested that the total pool ofAβ in undiluted human plasma is <5 ng/ml²⁹⁻³³. In addition, plasmasamples are diluted 50-fold prior to assay. Thus, endogenous Aβ isunlikely to significantly reduce assay signal by competing withimmobilized peptide for autoantibody binding.

The 42 residue isoform of Aβ was also tested in our ELISA. However, wewere unable to reproducibly coat replicate wells with equivalentloadings of HRP or metal-treated Aβ42 peptide (data not shown). This wasdue to the greater propensity of Aβ42 to aggregate as compared to theless hydrophobic 40 amino acid isoform. Therefore, Aβ42 was not used inthe experiments in this study.

Following assay characterization experiments, control (n=59) and AD(n=59) plasma were compared for immunoreactivity to either unmodified Aβ(Aβ_(mon)), Zn-treated (Aβ_(Zn)), or cross-linked Aβ (CLAPS). Wells wereincubated with the various Aβ preparations, blocked, incubated withsamples of diluted (1:50) plasma, and then probed for bound human IgG(FIG. 2). No significant difference was found between control and ADimmunoreactivity to A_(mon) or Aβ_(Zn) aggregates (FIG. 2 a and FIG. 2c). However, signal from control plasma incubated with CLAPS wassignificantly elevated (p=0.028 by t-test) as compared to AD samples(FIG. 2 b). In addition, the immunoreactivity of plasma fromnon-demented patients was greater for CLAPS than for Aβ_(mon).Differences in well loading precluded direct comparison of signals fromwells containing zinc-treated peptide versus those coated withunmodified or cross-linked Aβ.

In a control experiment, plasma from control and AD cases were alsoassayed for total IgG levels. Consistent with previous studies ofplasma^(25, 34, 35) and CSF³⁶, no significant differences were foundbetween control and AD plasma IgG concentrations (FIG. 2 d). Thus, thereduced levels of anti-CLAPS antibodies we observed for AD plasma cannotbe attributed to a non-specific decline in circulating IgGconcentrations.

Next, immunoblotting techniques were used to characterize theimmunogenicity of human plasma to CLAPS. For these experiments,HRP-treated Aβ was resolved by SDS-PAGE and transferred tonitrocellulose membrane. Membranes were then incubated with dilutedplasma (1:100 in 10% BSA in TBST) and probed with goat anti-IgG-HRPconjugated antibody. When immunoreactivity was detected in plasma fromnon-demented controls, the signal was highest for species with apparentmolecular weights of 15-35 kDa (FIG. 3). However, the sensitivity of theimmunoblot assay was insufficient for discrete detection of anti-Aβimmunoreactivity in most samples in our cohort. Notably, the two samplespresented in FIG. 3 that generated clear signals by immunoblot assayalso possessed the highest anti-CLAPS titers by ELISA.

Next, we compared anti-CLAPS antibody titers to levels of soluble Aβ inplasma as determined by sandwich ELISA. Anti-CLAPS antibody titers didnot correlate significantly with either Aβ40 or Aβ42 concentrations orAβ42/Aβ40 ratio in control, AD, or the combined plasma samples (Table2). However plasma immunoreactivity to CLAPS was found to correlatepositively (r=0.267 with p=0.041) with the age-at-onset (AAO) of AD: theearlier the AAO, the lower plasma immunoreactivity towards CLAPS. ADplasma antibody titers for Aβ_(mon) also demonstrated a trend towardpositive correlation with AAO but did not reach statistical significance(p=0.118). We also detected a trend in which plasma anti-CLAPSimmunoreactivity was decreased as a function of the progression of AD,but this did not reach statistical significance (r=−0.209 with p=0.111).Additional studies with larger cohorts will be required to determinewhether these two latter trends can be authenticated.

TABLE 2 Autoimmunoreactivity signal correlates with age of onset of ADbut not plasma Aβ levels. The nonparametric correlation coefficient(Spearman rank) and p value (2-tailed) was calculated forimmunoreactivity to unmodified (Aβ_(mon)) or HRP-generated cross-linkedβ-amyloid protein species (CLAPS) and corresponding plasma levels ofAβ40 or Aβ42 or Aβ40/Aβ42 ratio. Analysis tested control, and AD cohortsseparately and combined. Plasma Aβ isoform levels were determined bysandwich ELISA. For the AD cohort, plasma immunoreactivity was alsotested against age-at-onset (AAO) and duration (years from firstpositive diagnoses to sample collection) of AD. Consistent with previousanalysis, AAO for AD was found to correlate (p = 0.041*) with plasmaimmunoreactivity to HRP-treated Aβ. While the trend did not reachsignificance (p = 0.11), plasma immunoreactivity to HRP-treated Aβ alsodemonstrated a trend toward negative correlation with the number ofyears patients had displayed clinical AD symptoms. Control AD CombinedAβ_(mon) CLAPS Aβ_(mon) CLAPS Aβ_(mon) CLAPS Aβ40 r = 0.008 r = 0.072 r= −0.05 r = 0.123 r = 0.008 r = 0.091 p = 0.531 p = 0.584 p = 0.691 p =0.324 p = 0.933 p = 0.327 Aβ42 r = 0.110 r = 0.096 r = 0.078 r = 0.074 r= 0.028 r = 0.023 p = 0.401 p = 0.468 p = 0.553 p = 0.572 p = 0.756 p =0.805 Aβ40/Aβ42 r = 0.012 r = 0.003 r = 0.141 r = 0.061 r = 0.023 r =−0.023 p = 0.923 p = 0.982 p = 0.281 p = 0.644 p = 0.801 p = 0.800 ADOnset Age — — r = 0.196 r = 0.279 — — — — p = 0.136 p = 0.041* — —Disease Duration — — r = −0.118 r = −0.209 — — — — p = 0.373 p = 0.111 ——

DISCUSSION

Experiments with AD transgenic animal models suggest autoantibodies mayhave an important role in Aβ clearance¹⁴⁻¹⁶. However, whileimmunoreactivity of human plasma to Aβ_(mon) has been previouslyinvestigated^(23-26, 37), this is the first report of autoimmunityspecific to the subpopulation of cross-linked Aβ that we refer to as“CLAPS”. Our findings show that plasma from elderly non-demented controlpatients contain autoantibodies specific for CLAPS, in addition toimmunoreactivity to unmodified Aβ. Furthermore, we report thatimmunoreactivity to CLAPS is significantly reduced in AD plasma ascompared to non-demented controls and this reduction correlates with AAOof the disease. Data has been steadily accumulating to indicate thatCLAPS have may have an important role in AD neuropathogenesis. Aβneurotoxicity appears to be greatly potentiated when the peptideself-associates into organized structures. Recent data also suggest theproximal effectors of Aβ neurotoxicity may be the intermediates offibril assembly^(12, 13), particularly dimeric and trimeric CLAPS³⁸.Consistent with the potentially important pathological role for CLAPS,the protofibrils of other amyloid-forming proteins have also been shownto induce cell death, including α-synuclein, Huntingtin and PrP¹¹.

Antibodies to Aβ appear to develop in both non-demented and ADpatients^(21, 22, 24-26, 37), and are most likely a part of normalaging. Circulating levels of autoantibodies generally increase withaging in accord with at least two mechanisms (see review by Weksler etal., 2002³⁹). First, production of neo-antigens increase with age inresponse to general increases in protein oxidation, the accumulation ofaggregated proteinaceous material, and subtle shifts inposttranslational possessing, most notably glycosylation. Second, whilelevels of neo-antigens increase with age, the diversity of the generalantibody repertoire steadily declines. This leads to an increase in theconcentration of B-cell clonal idiotypes, eventually stimulatingproduction of anti-idiotypic autoantibodies. Several previous studieshave evaluated AD and age-matched control plasma for potentialdifferences in the levels of anti-Aβ autoantibodies. However, thecollective findings have been contradictory with an elevation²³, adecrease^(24, 25), and no change²⁶ reported for levels of anti-Aβantibodies in the plasma of AD cases versus non-demented controls.

Our data are consistent with previous reports, at least with regard toour observation of equivalent levels of autoantibodies to unmodified Aβin AD and non-demented control plasma samples²⁶ (FIG. 2 a). However,control plasma contained additional immunoreactivity to oxidized Aβspecies (FIG. 2). These data demonstrate that control plasma containsantibodies that recognize epitopes specific to oxidized forms of thepeptide. In contrast, AD plasma samples contained much lessimmunoreactivity to oxidized Aβ. Our analysis also showed thatanti-CLAPS antibody titers correlated significantly with AAO for AD(Table 2). Reduced anti-CLAPS immunoreactivity in AD plasma suggest thatautoantibodies to CLAPS may be protective for AD. One possibility isthat anti-CLAPS antibodies may aid in the clearance of these oxidizedforms of Aβ or attenuate their neurotoxicity by binding to the oligomerstructures⁴⁰.

Our experiments employed heterogeneous CLAPS preparations containingmonomeric, dimeric, and multimeric cross-linked oligomers (FIG. 1 a).Western blot assays were not sufficiently sensitive to conclusivelyquantitate the relative immunoreactivity of these different CLAPS formost samples in our cohort. However, our Western blot analysis was ableto identify Aβ oligomers with apparent molecular weights (15-35 kDa)corresponding to between four and eight cross-linked monomeric units asthe species with the highest immunoreactivity in our CLAPS preparationsin control plasma (FIG. 3). Interestingly however, these were not themost abundant Aβ oligomers in our CLAP preparations (FIG. 1 a). It isunclear what structural features render the (15-35 kDa) CLAPS relativelyhigh apparent immunogenicity. The relative toxicity of different CLAPSspecies is also unclear. Recent studies have demonstrated that Aβ_(mon)is substantially less neurotoxic than either cross-linkeddimers^(12, 13) or SDS-stable oligomers of between four and ten subunits(referred to as ADDLs)^(13, 41). While it remains to be determinedwhether the autoimmunogenicity and neurotoxicity of CLAPS are linked,our data are consistent with high immunoreactivity for the redoxcross-linked oligomers, which have thus far been reported to be highlyneurotoxic^(12, 13, 13, 41). Thus, further characterization of theimmunoreactive groups of CLAPS may be potentially useful for treatmentstrategies employing Aβ vaccination to reduce amyloid burden in ADpatients. Our data are consistent with the prediction that an immunogenincorporating the autoimmunogenic structural features of 15-35 kDaredox-modified Aβ oligomers may increase the specificity of antibodiesfor pathologically relevant Aβ species, and thus represent a moreeffective immunization based therapeutic strategy for treating andpreventing AD.

At least two populations of autoantibodies are likely to react with theCLAPS used in our assay. Redox modified Aβ from brain and peptideoxidized in vitro contain a number of chemical modifications, includingisomerization^(42, 43), carbonylation⁴⁴, and amino acid oxidation⁴⁵,while monomeric units in SDS-stable oligomeric species appear to becross-linked by dityrosine bridges^(28, 46, 47). The chemicalmodifications observed for CLAPS are common to many oxidized proteinsand are known to be epitopes for so-called natural autoantibodies(NAA)^(48, 49). NAA are characterized by broad reactivity directedagainst very well conserved public epitopes^(39, 48, 49). It is highlypossible that a portion of anti-CLAPS immunoreactivity is mediated byNAA. Consistent with this posit, many of the anti-Aβ antibodies secretedby EBV-transformed B cells are polyreactive⁵⁰. However, in addition topublic epitopes, the secondary/tertiary conformation of cross-linkedCLAPS oligomers may also generate neo-antigenic epitopes, andautoantibodies to these epitopes are likely to be much more specific forredox modified Aβ.

AD plasma possessed significantly less immunoreactivity to CLAPS thandid control samples. It is unclear if the increased immunoreactivity incontrol plasma is directed against specific or public epitopes on CLAPS.Notably, control and AD plasma have exhibited equivalentimmunoreactivity to zinc-generated Aβ assemblies (FIG. 2 b). In thepresence of zinc, Aβ self-associates into aggregates with an orderedstructure that mimics many of the physiochemical properties ofβ-amyloid^(51, 52). However, zinc-treatment does not oxidize orcovalently cross-link Aβ monomers (FIG. 1 a). Thus, while the identityof the epitopes remain unclear, our findings suggest that the elevatedlevels of anti-CLAPS immunoreactivity in control plasma is specific foroxidized cross-linked oligomers and most likely not elicited bynon-covalently bound assemblies of Aβ such as the aggregates that formin the presence of zinc.

It remains unclear whether AD patients have a low autoimmune response toCLAPS before the onset of the disease, or AD pathogenesis involvesattenuation of anti-CLAPS antibody titers. AD pathogenesis may loweranti-CLAPS antibody titers via several mechanisms. AD patients maydevelop increased immunotolerance to CLAPS after the onset of thedisease, possibly in response to elevated levels of redox-modified Aβspecies. Elevated levels of circulating CLAPS may also act to depletethe pool of anti-CLAPS antibodies as antigen/antibody complexes arecleared from plasma. Unfortunately, direct determination of levels ofspecific forms of CLAPS in human plasma must await the development ofassays specific for various redox-modified forms of the peptide. It isalso possible that the pool of circulating anti-CLAPS antibodies inplasma may be depleted by absorption to insoluble β-amyloid depositsthat line the cerebral vasculature of AD patients⁵³. Recent findingsfrom human Aβ vaccination trials confirm that β-amyloid in cerebralvasculature can provide a peripheral sink for anti-Aβ antibodies¹⁷. TheELISA used to measure anti-CLAPS immunoreactivity may also reportartifactually low titers if anti-CLAPS antibodies were absorbed byelevated levels of plasma CLAPS. However, our ELISA characterizationexperiments (FIG. 1 c) suggest that to significantly reduce anti-Aβantibody capture under the conditions of our assay would require CLAPSconcentrations 500-fold higher than the levels previously reported forsoluble Aβ species in plasma²⁹⁻³³. Thus, it seems unlikely that elevatedendogenous CLAPS levels are responsible for the attenuated signalobserved for AD plasma.

Finally, it remains to be determined whether reduced levels ofanti-CLAPS antibodies represent a risk factor for the development orprogression of AD pathology. It is possible that anti-CLAPSautoantibodies may protect neurons by aiding in the clearance of theseneurotoxic species or by neutralizing their bioactivity⁴⁰. If thisproves to be the case, then the efficacy of Aβ immunization and anti-Aβpassive infusion therapies might be enhanced by targeting oxidized Aβspecies. Previous immunization trials have used only unmodified Aβ asthe immunogenic agent. Recent findings are consistent with the positthat targeting specific epitopes on Aβ may improve treatment efficacyand reduce undesirable inflammatory responses¹⁹.

In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that redox cross-linkedoligomeric Aβ species are immunoreactive with human plasma. Theimmunoreactivity is specific for cross-linked oligomers, but not Aβassemblies bound by non-covalent forces such as those found inzinc-induced Aβ aggregates. We also observed that AD plasma containedlower titers of anti-CLAPS antibodies compared to non-demented controlsubjects and that immunoreactivity to CLAPS correlated with AAO of thedisease. These findings may be useful in revising and facilitatingfuture designs of reagents for Aβ vaccination and passive antibodyperfusion therapies aimed at treating and presenting AD.

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EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain usingno more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specificembodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents areintended to be encompassed by the following claims.

All references, including patent documents, disclosed herein areincorporated by reference in their entirety.

We claim: 1.-13. (canceled)
 14. A method for treating or preventingAlzheimer's disease, comprising administering to a subject in need ofsuch treatment an amount of antibodies, or antigen-binding fragmentsthereof, that bind to an oxidized form of amyloid β.
 15. The method ofclaim 14, wherein the oxidized form of amyloid is cross-linked β-amyloidprotein species (CLAPS).
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein theantibodies are made by administering an oxidized form of amyloid β to amammal to produce antibodies that bind the oxidized form of amyloid β.17. The method of claim 16, wherein the oxidized form of amyloid iscross-linked β-amyloid protein species (CLAPS).
 18. The method of claim17, wherein the CLAPS are 15-35 kDa.
 19. The method of claim 16, whereinthe mammal is a non-human species comprising human immunoglobulin genes.20. The method of claim 19, wherein the non-human species is a mouse.21. The method of claim 14, wherein the antibodies or fragments thereofare human antibodies or fragments thereof.
 22. The method of claim 14,wherein the antibodies or fragments thereof are humanized or chimericantibodies, or fragments thereof.
 23. The method of claim 14, whereinthe antibody fragments are selected from the group consisting of Fabfragments, F(ab′)₂ fragments, and Fv fragments.
 24. The method of claim14, wherein the antibodies are single chain antibodies.